General Information
Sultanate of Oman is a state located on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula bordering the Arabian Sea Gulf of Oman and Persian Gulf between Yemen and the UAE. The coast of Oman was an important part in the Omani Empire and Sultanate. The capital of the country is Muscat located at the northeast part of the coast of Oman at the Gulf of Oman.
The Sultanate of Oman is governed by a Monarchy (Sultanate) with two advisory bodies. The Sultan is the head of the State and although he also acts as the Prime Minister he may appoint one if he chooses. The Sultan is assisted by a Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzara) the members of which he appoints from among Muscat merchants’ informal representatives of interior tribes and Dhofaris (from the Dhofari Governorate).
In 1981 the Sultan established the Consultative Assembly, which was replaced in 1991 by a Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shura). Its members were at first appointed and later elected from several dozen districts including women from a few constituencies. In 1996 the Sultan announced the establishment of the Basic Law of the State the country’s first written Constitution which outlined the new system of government that included a bicameral legislature the Council of Oman.
The country is divided administratively into regions and governorates each of which contains a number of districts. Local governance is carried out by a combination of traditional representatives of the Sultan and by more recently established municipal councils.
Regarding justice Oman has Islamic courts based on the ibadi interpretation of the Islamic Law which handle personal status cases. There are also civil, criminal, and commercial courts that are organized into courts of first instance, appeals courts and a Supreme Courts which is chaired by the Sultan. Furthermore, there are some specialized courts.
History
The northern part of current Oman was part of the Maka Satrapy of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. From the 2nd half of the 1st Millennium BCE waves of Semitic speaking peoples migrated from central and western Arabia to the east. These waves continue in the 19th century bringing Bedouin ruling families who finally ruled the Persian Gulf states. The Kingdom of Oman was subdued by the Sasanian Empire’s forces under Vahrez during the Aksumite-Persian wars. Islam arrived in Oman in 630, consolidation took mplace in the Ridda Wars in 632. In 751 Ibadi Muslims established an imamate in Oman which survived until the mid-20th century.
The Qarmatians controlled the area between 931 and 932 and then again between 933 and 934. The Qarmatians was a dynasty of a syncretic branch of Sevener Ismaili Shia Islam. The following years between 967 and 1053 Oman formed part of the domain of the Iranian Buyyids and between 1053 and 1154 Oman was part of the Seljuk Empire. In 1154 the indigenous Nabhani dynasty took control of Oman and ruled the country till 1470 with an interruption between 1406 and 1443.
The Portuguese took control of Muscat on the 1st of April 1515 and hold the city till 1650 with the exception of the period between 1550-1551 and 1581-1588 when Muscat was controlled by the Ottomans. By 1719 the dynastic succession caused a civil war between the two major tribes of Oman, the Hinawi and the Ghafiri. In 1743 the Persian ruler Nader Shah occupied Muscat and Sohar with the assistance of the local ruler Saif bin Sultan II who later that year passed away.
The Persian intervention provoked a revolt. The leader of the revolt Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi (1710-1783) took advantage of the assassination of the Persian King and managed in 1747 to expel the Persian forces from Oman.
The Said al-Busaidi family eventually became a Royal Dynasty but many years later, before the death of the leader of the revolution Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi in 1783, the ruling family was divided into two main lines a) the Sultan ibn Ahmad line controlling the maritime state with nominal control over the entire country and b) the Qais branch with authority over the Al Batinah and Ar Rustaq areas. Effectively in 1783, the sovereignty of Oman was divided between the coastal side, which followed a hereditary line of succession ruled by al-Busaidi Sultans in Muscat, and the interior of Oman, which retained the elective Imamate and declared Nizwa as its capital.
During the rule of Sultan Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi (1806-1856) Oman built up its overseas colonies profiting from the slave trade. Oman controlled the island of Zanzivar the Zanj region of the East Coast of Africa including Mombasa and Dar es Salam and till 1958 the port of Gwadar on the Arabian Sea coast of Pakistan. The abolishment of slave trade by Britain resulted to the collapse of the economy of Oman and the capture of most of the overseas possessions of Oman by the British.
The death of Sultan Said ibn Sultan al-Busaidi led to the creation of two separate principalities in 1861 through the mediation of Britain. The new principalities Zanzibar (with its African Great Lakes dependencies) and the area of Muscat and Oman. The area of Muscat had more cosmopolitan and secular culture ruled by the Sultan, while the Oman area had a highly religious, tribal, insular culture ruled by an Imam.
Turki bin Said al-Busaid (1871 - 1888) managed to suppress any internal reaction and become with the support of the British after defeating militarily his enemies (Imam Azzan bin al-Busaid who controlled the interior region of Oman) the Sultan of Muscat. During the 19th century Muscat, Oman and Britain signed several treaties of commerce.
For several decades the rivalry between the Imamate on Oman (interior area of Oman) and the Sultanate of Muscat was mostly political, but at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century the cities of Muscat and Matrah suffered from tribal attacks in the name of the Imam. In 1908 Britain reached to an agreement with Sultanate of Muscat and managed to control the area.
In 1913, Imam Salim ibn Rashid al-Kharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Imamate established peace with the Sultanate through the signing of Treaty of Seeb. The treaty resulted in a de facto split between Oman and Muscat, wherein the interior part (Oman) was ruled by the Imamate and the coastal part (Muscat) was ruled by the Sultanate.
By its terms the Sultan of Muscat recognized the autonomy but not the sovereignty of the Omani interior. In 1951 Britain and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman signed a new treaty of commerce. According to the new treaty Britain recognized the Sultanate as fully independent state under its supervision and its strategic interest.
The interior of the country remained autonomous until 1954 when the new Imam Ghalib Alhinai tried to establish an independent state after oil was discovered in the lands of the Imam. The conflict between the two sides erupted in 1954 and lasted for 5 years with the surrender of the forces of the Imam in 1959.
The Sultan Said bin Taimur was helped militarily by the British and Iran. In the early 1960’s the Imam eventually exiled to Saudi Arabia. In early 1964 Zanzibar became independent and the same year a new separatist revolt began in Dhofar province aided by the Communist and leftist governments such as the former South Yemen.
In 1970 Qaboos bin Said al Said ousted his father and ruler Sultan Said bin Taimur with a coup d’etat. The same year the name Muscat and Oman was changed to the Sultanate of Oman.
The new ruler abolished many of his father’s harsh restrictions, initiated a development program to upgrade educational and health facilities build modern infrastructure establish a modern governmental structure abolish slavery and develop the country’s natural resources. He managed to confine the rebels to a small area near the Yemen borders in 1975 with the help of the British, Iranian and Jordanians and eventually defeated them in December 1975.
Qaboos bin Said al Said ruled the country till January 2020 when he died, living behind him a great heritage of reforms such as the first Constitution of the Country the “Basic Statutes of the State”, the Consultative Council the “Majlis Al-Shura” which members were elected in 2000 and the “Majlis Al Dowla” or State Council which acts as the upper chamber in Oman’s bicameral representative body.
In January 2020 his cousin Haitham bin Tariq al-Said was sworn in as the new Sultan of Oman.
Geography and Climate
The Sultanate of Oman is located on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula bordering the Arabian Sea Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf between Yemen and the UAE. The total land area of Oman is 309,500 km2 and its coastline is 3,165km long. Valleys and desert account for 82% of the land mass, the mountain ranges 15% and the coastal plain 3%.
At the northeast of the country, the Al Hajar mountains create a coastal belt, and the Rub al Khali desert creates another barrier to the west. The high rugged Al Hajar Mountains extend for 700 km southeastward parallel to the gulf coast from the Musandam Peninsula to a point near Cape al-Hadd at the easternmost tip of the Arabian Peninsula. The range is divided by Samail Gap to western and eastern range.
The desert of Rub al Khali is difficult to cross forming a barrier between Oman and the Arabian Peninsula interior. The coastal region of the country is much more hospitable than the interior of Oman.
Oman’s northern coast lies between the sea and inland mountains. This area as well as the Dhofar region in the country’s south are fertile with important agricultural production. The highest point of Oman is the peak of Mount Shams at 3,009 meters.
An inland plateau falls away to the southwest of the Hajar Mountains into the great Rub al Khali desert which Oman shares with Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
The southern region of Dhofar is separated from the rest of Oman by several thousand kilometers of open desert.
Furthermore, the Sultanate of Oman has one enclave Madha and the Musandam peninsula within the land borders of the UAE.
There are no permanent bodies of fresh water in the country, intermittent streams are a product of seasonal storms and generally abate quickly. The climate is hot and dry in the interior and hot and humid along the coast. Summer temperatures in Muscat and other coastal locations often reach to 43 degrees Celsius with high humidity winters are mild with lows averaging about 17 degrees Celsius. Temperatures are similar in the interior although they are moderate at higher elevations
Dhofar is dominated by the summer monsoon making the climate more temperate than that of northern Oman. Rainfall in Oman is minimal averaging only about 100mm per year although precipitation in the mountains is heavier.
The Ethnic Groups of the Population of the Sultanate of Oman
The population of Sultanate of Oman was 5.11 million in 2020 of which the Omani population is 2.99 million (59.98% of the total population) and the expatriate population is 1.99 million (40% of the total population).
The population of the country was increased by 2.6% since 2010 and the density of the population was 16.5 people per sq.km of land area in 2020.
The life expectancy at birth was 78 years in 2020 and the fertility rate (births per woman) was 2.8 in 2020.
Oman’s population primarily consists of Arabs, Baluchi who migrated to Oman from Iran and Pakistan over the past centuries and live near the coast in Al Batinah, South Asians (Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Bangladeshi mostly men, and female migrant workers from the Philippines, Indonesia and Sri Lanka) and African groups.
Migrants from Arab countries represent a small percentage of the foreign population of the country and are mostly from Egypt, Jordan, Sudan, UAE and Iraq.
Oman has three type of identities, two of these are “tribalism” and “Ibadism” and the third one is linked to “maritime trade” The first two are widespread in the interior of Oman and closely tried to tradition. The third identity which is widespread at the coastal region of Oman is an identity that has become embodied in business and trade. There is a social inequality among the three groups and as a result tension between the socio-cultural groups of the Omani society.
The official language of the country is Arabic, while English, Persian and Urdu are also spoken. The overwhelming majority of Omanis are Muslims. The Ibadi branch of Islam a moderate Kharijite group claims the most adherents. Ibadism is close to Sunni Islam, but the Imams are elected.
Foreign Relations of the Sultanate of Oman
The Sultanate of Oman joined the UN on the 7th of October 1971 a year after Qaboos bin Said Al Said become the Sultan of Oman. Oman participates as a member at the following international organisations: ABEDA, AFESD, AMF, CAEU, FAO, G-77, GCC, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (NGOs), IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO.
During his 50-years rule the late Sultan of Oman, Qaboos bin Said al-Said managed to set the foundations and the guidelines of the foreign policy of his country. Qaboos bin Said al-Said transformed Oman from an isolationist country into one that punched well above its weight in international affairs.
The Sultanate of Oman during the rule of Qaboos bin Said al-Said, became a player that was able to maintain strong working relationships with countries across the Middle East despite fierce rivalries and deep-set conflicts.
The foreign policy of the Sultanate of Oman followed for decades three principles, a) Balanced foreign policy, b) Conflict resolution, and c) Skillful mediation. Oman did not follow the foreign policies of its neighbors and preferred to keep a balanced, neutral foreign policy.
The Sultanate of Oman along with other GCC countries joined the Y.S led Global Coalition to defeat ISIS in 2014. Muscat offered the use of its airbases from the coalition but did not conduct airstrikes against ISIS. Oman also did not back any rebel fighting the forces of Syrian President Al Asad and instead focused on mediating the Syrian internal conflict.
Although Oman joined other Arab countries in 2011 in suspending Syria’s membership in the Arab League did not suspend its relations with the Syrian Government. Oman is one of the rare Arab countries that maintained diplomatic relations with the Syrian Government of President Bashar Al-Asad after the 2011 uprising despite pressure from the U.S and other Gulf states.
The Sultanate of Oman did not join the Saudi and Emirati led coalition in Yemen in 2015 and has instead focused on mediation and humanitarian efforts.
Oman did not also join the blockade of Qatar by Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states in 2017. On the contrary Oman increase its trade with Qatar in 2018 by over 100% compared to 2017. Furthermore, the Sultanate of Oman maintains a working relationship with Iran and does not regard Tehran as an adversary. The credentials of the new Omani Ambassador in Syria were accepted by the Syrian Minister of Foreign Affairs in October 2020.
Oman was one of the most instrumental players in the evolution of the Iran nuclear deal. Oman has also acted as an intermediary during U.S-Iranian negotiations over captives. In 2017 the Iranian President Hassan Rouhani visited Muscat reflecting Oman’s willingness to engage with the Iranians at a high level.
Oman’s relations with UAE have often been politically tense. In 2011 and 2018 Oman arrested members of a spy ring backed by Abu Dhabi. The two countries have a history of territorial disputes that were settled with an agreement in 1999 and the border delimitation ratified on 22 June 2002.
The Sultanate of Oman avoided for many decades entering the region’s sectarian strife and tension in the international system. The country has been effective in reducing tensions between Arab and non-Arab countries in a positive neutrality policy by maintaining good relations with influential regional and international powers. In its interactions Oman has been able to balance the conflicting interests of its neighbors and regional and trans-regional powers.
The new Sultan of Oman Haitham bin Tariq Al Said promised to uphold his predecessor’s foreign policy. According to the new Sultan, “We will follow the same line as the late sultan, and the principles that he asserted for the foreign policy of our country, of peaceful coexistence among nations and people, and good neighborly behavior of non-interference in the affairs of others.”
Although the new Sultan of Oman has extensive experience in foreign affairs, he decided to appoint Badr al-Busaidi as the new Minister of Foreign Affairs. Al-Busaidi, is a longtime foreign policy specialist who will hope to continue the country’s balanced approach to international affairs.